No.
2: 2000
Hanna Regev, MA, MA
President, Northern California Council of the
National Museum of Women in the Arts (NCCNMWA)
Is Mentoring Viable for a Museum Professional?
When I entered the museum studies program in the late 1980s, no one spoke of mentors or mentoring. Today, things have changed, with the increasing demands of the museum profession and the need for professional development. As shown in a recent informal survey by Clearwaters (1999) there is a need to prepare effective managers, museum educators and high caliber administrators to fill top positions. In this atmosphere, we need to realize the value of a mentor in providing career guidance and in facilitating career growth and job satisfaction for individuals. We also need to address the issue of equity and diversity in museums. By inaugurating mentoring programs, we will address the developmental needs of institutions and the profession, as well as the issue of minority representation (Hill 1991).
Mentoring is a key career resource for developing managerial talent and also a tool for educating new employees and socializing them into the values and culture of the workplace. In recent years, roundtable sessions on mentoring have become an important agenda item at the annual meetings of the American Association of Museums (AAM 1999). In the last three years, the AAM has provided mentoring opportunities in roundtable sessions at the annual meeting. In the 1999 annual conference there were 23 sessions that were fully subscribed. As these mentoring sessions have gained in popularity and attendance, they have become both a service and career development tool to new and mid level professionals encompassing a variety of specializations.
The need for mentorship has been identified by a variety of museum professionals, such as registrars, curators, educators, and administrators, who desire closer contacts with someone who understands the pressures and dynamics of museums. Others seek a mentor to gain a broader perspective and to make contacts that go beyond their immediate local museum confines. Mentors can also help a mentee focus, sort out career priorities, and provide important networking contacts.
The purpose of this article is to introduce the concept of mentoring and explore ways it could be implemented in the museum organizational structure and culture. Despite the recognized need for mentorship in the museum profession, there is a lack of documentation and studies on mentorship in the museum literature. Therefore, I have reviewed other sources with a critical eye to the applicability to museums. In this paper, I focus on mentorship as it relates to career development within the museum context. Following a brief literature review, I discuss: (1) the meaning of the term and its use in the general literature; (2) the need for developing a mentoring program for museum professionals; (3) requirements for mentoring programs; (4) models of mentorship; and (5) conclusions and recommendations for future directions.
Defining Mentoring
Through the years, the word "mentor" has come to mean "trusted friend" and "counselor." But in today's social climate, where so much attention is focused on climbing the ladder, being a mentor has taken on the newer meaning of "career guide" or "executive nurturer" (Harper 1999).
The word "mentor" has a long history that gives its 20th century usage particular importance. The meaning of the word comes from a mythical Greek character named Mentor who appears in the Homer's The Odyssey. Mentor acted as guide, protector, tutor, and advisor to Telemachus, son of Odysseus. He inspired Telemachus to accomplish the challenges life presented to him (Yoder 1990).
In pursuit of historical roots, we find in Sophocles' words, "The reasonable thing is to learn from those who can teach." Records from the Renaissance period indicate that mentoring was a commonly accepted method of educating young people (Wickman 1997). Mentoring flourished and was first prevalent in the arts and humanities. The traditional mentorship model is the apprentice learning from a master. In the Industrial Age, mentoring focused on career advancement within organizational hierarchies (Haney 1997).
Mentoring occurs when a senior person (the mentor) in terms of age and experience undertakes to provide information, advice, and emotional support for a junior person (the protégé) in a relationship lasting over an extended period of time and marked by substantial emotional commitment by both parties. If the opportunity presents itself, the mentor also uses both formal and informal forms of influence to further the career of the protégé.
Generally, mentoring is defined as a relationship between two persons, one more experienced than the other. The mentor provides guidance, advice, support, and feedback to the protégé (Haney 1997). In the workplace, mentoring is used as a way to help new employees learn about organizational culture (Bierema 1996), to facilitate personal and career growth and development, and to expand opportunities for women and minorities (Gunn 1995).
Current Approaches to Mentoring
From gender and racial perspectives, it is only in the last few years have researchers begun to examine the importance of mentoring for women and people of color (Maniero 1994; Thomas 1990). Avon conducted its Mentoring Matters Survey among 2000 female and male respondents. The survey revealed that mentoring makes a decided difference in career advancement and business success for women. Women who have had mentors are almost twice as likely as other women to mentor someone else. More than half of women entrepreneurs have had mentors, and of these, nearly half (48%) had mentors who were also women. Among women owning small businesses and who have had mentors, an overwhelming 94% say that the experience was "crucial/very helpful" to their success (www.avon.com/about women/move/enterprise/survey2/html).
Research on mentoring suggests that a mentoring relationship can be especially useful to women and minorities because it can provide access to the informal power structure, which currently excludes women and minorities (Cox 1993; Hall and Allen 1982; Ragins 1989; Willbur 1987). The Catalyst Corporate Ladder Progress Report suggests that CEOs of corporate America are sold on formal programs: 44% said formal mentoring programs were an effective strategy for advancing women. Only 2% of women agreed. Interestingly though, the women were more likely to see informal mentors as helpful to their careers -37% cited them as essential to success (Crittenden 1996).
The concept of mentoring is frequently found in popular magazines, books and reported in scientific writings and presentations. Allen and Johnson (1997) report that over 500 articles on mentoring were published in popular and academic publications in business and education in the last decade. Even national television (NBC) and the San Francisco local KQED television program advocate mentoring by announcing opportunities in between programs.
The current museum literature only hints at the need for mentorship and for career guidance (Reynolds 1998). The scant information in the museum literature suggests that the main aim of mentoring is to create a trusting, confidential relationship outside the work environment. A mentor will enable the mentee to examine his career aims and needs with an experienced, objective partner. The mentor is also there to challenge and to help confront things the mentee may not want to confront (Falconer 1998). When building mentoring models in the museum field, one should consider these components of the definition.
Models of Mentorship
Traditional forms of mentoring have been classified as formal and informal models. Informal mentorships are spontaneous relationships that occur without external involvement from the organization. By and large, these mentorships arrangements are not managed and are not formally recognized by the organization. Formal mentorships, on the other hand, are accepted and undergo a process of matching files, profiles, evaluation, and so forth.
Traditional mentorships are often defined as intense relationships of relatively long duration (Clawson 1980; Kram 1985; Levinson et al. 1978). This type of mentorship is referred to as primary mentoring. Recently, questions have been raised as to whether groups or peers can provide effective mentoring as well. This is becoming increasingly attractive in a business community that is affected by rapid technological change and organizational downsizing.
Group mentoring occurs within professional associations where proteges could benefit from teachings/advice, and exchange of ideas and feedback. Group mentoring then becomes as a substitute for individual mentors by allowing the proteges to capitalize on the benefits of role modeling, networking, psychosocial support, and feelings of belonging resulting from group interaction.
Cross-company mentorship is based on an external mentor approach. Companies such as Schwab, Levi Strauss and others pay to match midlevel female managers with higher-ranking mentors-both men and women-at other companies. The external mentor approach is on the rise (Scher 1996). Museum administrators supportive of their staff may want to consider adapting this model. This might work very well in the small to mid-size museum. By developing a mentoring program they could benefit from more skilled and experienced professionals to help with issues at hand.
Another form of mentoring gaining in popularity is peer mentoring. This type of mentoring occurs within the organization and is based on establishing relationships between co-workers. In this type of arrangement, interactions of peers give psychosocial support, career advice and feedback.
Mentorship does not have to occur in one-to-one relationships. Mentees could participate in educational programs, Summer Institutes or fellowships, the Getty Management Institute, Cultural Connections: A consortium of Northern California Museum Educators. Ideally, the corporate model of cross company as practiced in the corporate world could be adapted by museum professionals. Menttium 100, for example, provides opportunities for key mid-level female employees who participate for one year in a three-part executive development program. This includes a partnership with a senior level mentor from another organization, quarterly leadership forums focused on critical business and management issues, an opportunity to develop a geographically based peer network, creating alliances with more than 100 other corporate women. In the business world mentoring is used as a tool for professional career advancement and retention.
Today's technology enables us to communicate with greater ease, speed, and be accessible. All museums with internet capabilities might consider the virtual experience and develop mentoring relations online as provided by Mentor Net Company (http://www.mentornet.com).
Building a Case for Mentoring in Museums
So far, the museum literature has lagged behind in introducing the concept of mentoring and has not provided us with clear models to guide the development of careers in museums. Women directors who have reached top positions may act as role models for other women but have done so informally (O'Donnell 1997). In order to break the pattern of seeing high-level positions filled by males, the few who succeeded will have to assume a more active role and engage in a systematic mentoring programs that goes beyond providing a supportive role.
In the 1998 study "The Museum as Career Choice," the testimonials of senior museum professionals revealed that careers were built on chance and unexpected circumstances. For others, the lack of support translated into disappointment and hardship. A case in point was the statement of Devon Pyle-Vowles (1998:66):
I found part-time museum work easily, but it took me a year to find "the job" (full-time) that utilized my education from GWU... the work was just what I expected, but the politics, management, and inter-museum problems were bizarre. I didn't have as much training as I would have liked in dealing with this kind of real-world stuff.
Mentoring is also needed to assist new professionals to apply their skills in ways that add value to museums. Administrators need to make better use of the insights and skills new professionals bring and this could easily be tapped into through a mentoring program (Hamp, Chin, Gurian, Early, Jones Reynols and Sorin 1998). Thus, mentoring is crucial in career development and more so among new and mid-career museum professionals who are eager to excel and often are lost and left behind by their senior peers or hampered by lack of funding for career development.
As Reynolds (1998) points out, there are many learning opportunities available for those interested in advancing in the museum profession. Managerial and administrative knowledge and skills can be further developed in institutes. Museum associates offer opportunities to learn about new technologies and techniques in sessions at their annual meetings and in professional development workshops. It is encouraging to know that most museum professionals are willing to share their knowledge with the less-experienced in the field and, thus, providing the needed guidance and counsel.
Mentoring and Career Advancement
There are many reasons for wanting a mentor and career guidance is one of them. First, the museum world has changed dramatically. Today's job market is dynamic and expectations are high. Career advancement in the museum profession through experience and diligence can no longer be assumed. The broadening of museum functions and orientations is opening new career opportunities and advancement. To reap the benefits from these opportunities, junior career professionals might need to acquire news skills in order to perform the higher level jobs. I foresee a demand for mentors who will play a significant role in skill development and self-confidence (Vance and Olson 1991). Individuals must assume a proactive role in managing their careers, engage in creative initiatives, network and seek mentors.
More than ever before, the museum field is in a state of flux. Employers are increasingly utilizing mentoring as a mechanism for creating and sustaining an organization's competitive advantage as well as viewing mentoring as a technique which can be used to fulfill employees' personal career goals (Aryee, Chay, and Chew 1996; Russell and Adams 1997).
Mentoring may also be effective in promoting minorities to higher ranks and better paid positions. Given the glass ceiling and the demographic composition of museums, minorities are not well represented among the ranks of highly paid managers. Entering into a development relationship that promotes career progress and salary attainment could be reached through mentoring relations. The positive career effects associated with the establishing of mentoring relationships have been observed in many studies and have been reported in popular and academic journals (Burk and McKeen 1997).
Specifically, research has found that mentoring has been positively related to career success for the protégé. Researchers have found employees who received mentoring: (a) experienced more promotions, (b) had higher incomes, and (c) were more satisfied with their pay and benefits than individuals. In addition to the benefits received by the protege, the mentor and the organization derive positive outcomes from the mentoring relationships (Ensher and Murphy 1997). It has repeatedly been shown that coaching and mentoring pay off not just in better performance but also in increased job satisfaction and decreased turnover. By assessing the benefits of mentoring and learning more about the impact it has on institutions, we could expect such programs to spring around the country. Hopefully, museum colleagues, institutions, and professional associations will support such efforts and devote time and resources for such programs. By implementing a mentoring program, that is, matching a protégé with a volunteer mentor, one could expect to see career mobility among young professionals and minorities occupying higher positions. Mentors can provide support and encouragement, as well as help employees understand the informal system and learn how to be successful within the organization. Through the mentoring relationship, proteges learn how to develop a network or to expand their existing one. The role mentors play in building one's career cannot be underestimated.
Models for Museum Mentoring Programs
Lack of studies in the museum literature lead us to seek models outside the museum domain. Recent research on the mentoring process has shown that mentors typically provide two distinct forms of support to their protégés: instrumental and psychosocial. Instrumental support enhances the career of the protégé by providing challenging assignments and visibility as well as the mentor's sponsorship and protection (Gibb and Megginson 1993). The instrumental aspect of mentoring is of interest here and could be implemented provided it has a supportive environment. This assumes that museum administrators and the board see a value in career development worthy of investment. It will mean giving the mentor and the mentee some time to engage in meaningful exchanges. By now, we should all realize that every museum professional should be mentored in their current areas of practice. Every museum professional should be mentoring someone else from his or her own base of experience.
There are a number of ways in which mentees can get involved and develop their professional skills. A viable way is to participate in professional activities. These are publishing, presenting, serving as consultants, getting involved in research and political activities, and local and professional organizations. These activities may lead to opportunities and relationships with a variety of individuals who offer new perspectives on career development and growth and open doors for new making connections to advancement.
Because the one-to-one relationship can be very costly, a director can support the museum's staff by substituting group mentoring and sending junior employees to workshops and summer institutes. We will need to be visionaries who can motivate others to go in new directions.
Benefits of Mentoring
There are a number of reasons for wanting to institute a mentorship program and supporting it. I believe, mentoring programs benefit the mentees at the beginning and mid-career, the mentor, the institution, and the museum profession.
As for the mentee benefits, he or she receives counsel from an experienced individual that applies to a work situation and individual career. The benefits could extend beyond work and can provide individuals with opportunities to enhance cultural awareness, aesthetic appreciation, and the potential to lead meaningful professional lives (Galbraith and Cohen 1995).
Mentees who work on projects and teams under the mentor's guidance become added resource for the mentor. If a protégé can stimulate the mentor's thinking in new ways about subjects the mentor considered stale, this could benefit the mentor and the organization as well. Building a team of high performers will improve group performance and the mentor gets recognition for a job well done (Murray and Owen 1991).
We assume that a mentee brings along creative energy to the relationship and the project at hand and in turn draws on the experience and wise professional. Also, to some mentors, there might be a financial incentive. Some programs provide financial rewards for mentors or a basis for promotion or bonus if performance is judged satisfactory. Besides, the mere request of being asked is no doubt flattering to one's ego. Indeed, a study of executives in the Columbia University Executive Program and found that being a mentor for high performers was satisfying to most executives (Reich 1985).
It is important to understand that mentors are not "guardian angels" who have dedicated their career to the altruistic mission of nurturing proteges. The well-meaning mentor-protégé relationships are based on the principle of reciprocity. Both parties must benefit from the relationship for it to be sustainable.
When a mentoring program is developed, the museum will be the beneficiary. A well-designed program is cost effective and will stabilize the institution's staff, will enhance job satisfaction among its staff and save money in the recruitment and training process. This aspect of mentoring is a worthwhile consideration for the small size museum with no staff to spare and limited resources. By reducing turnover in a museum, mentoring becomes a management tool for controlling costs and retaining trained staff.
By and large, mentorship relations are formed for the purpose of career development, and facilitation of an individual's learning the ropes and preparation for advancement in an organization. There are also some psychosocial functions associated with mentoring. This involves the enhancement of an individual's sense of competence, identity, and effectiveness in a professional role. It could be designed to identify, cultivate and nurture future leaders in the museum field. These leaders become influential and will have an impact on the development of the organization where they work and the profession as whole.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Mentoring is an important career development tool and a factor behind professional success (Short 1997). Based on the research, we also know that effective mentoring has made an impact on retention and career satisfaction. We need to conduct studies within the museum field and ascertain the benefits mentoring will bring to the museum profession. We will also have to create opportunities for professional growth and development and boost morale and job satisfaction.
Successful matches can be expected to produce research, publications, more satisfying careers and solve retention issues. There is need to promote the concept and develop models that fit the museum setting. Because of the predominance of females in the profession, research in mentoring could yield interesting insights into women's development, including both personal and professional arenas (Vance and Olson 1991).
Ideally, the challenge for achieving high standards in work place will require that museum governing boards and administrators encourage continued learning and training beyond the introductory basics of the job. It will require making a commitment to ongoing programs and allowing quality time for fostering meaningful careers between junior and senior colleagues. Also, it would be desirable to see that every museum professional should be a mentor in their area of practice and every professional should be mentoring someone else and share lessons learned about their experience and professional growth.
It is necessary to plan and give staff time and resources for career development and staff members will have to make a commitment and find time for professional development. For career development and job satisfaction, retention of highly qualified staff, there will have to be an institutional commitment. Since most museums are not built for career mobility, they at least could provide learning and growth opportunities. The results of an informal survey of museum list subscribers conducted by Clearwaters is very encouraging. In this survey, 31 people who responded, 20 stated that institutional support exists in their museum for staff to attend courses, seminars, and conferences. In some instances, the museum budget has a line item for training that includes travel expenses (Clearwaters 1999).
In the twenty-first century, museums will require professionals with leadership abilities who are able to recognize and define problems, devise plans and implement solutions, and track and evaluate outcomes (Reynolds 1998). Developing visionary administrators will require deliberate grooming and investment of resources. Preparing a work force as such is not a luxury it is a necessity. Hopefully this paper will stimulate discussions in the museum community on the merit of instituting mentoring programs and thinking in creative ways of developing mentoring programs for the new millennium.
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